When did manufactories appear in Europe? Manufactories in Russia

What is manufactory? In the classical sense, manufacture is a form that precedes the formation of large-scale machine industry. However, the term “manufacture” has many meanings. It is used to determine the specific stage of development of capitalist production and the type of capitalist enterprise. Factory textile products decorated by machine are often referred to as manufactory. To designate various kinds of craft establishments, factories, especially textile and weaving ones, the word “manufactory” also sounds.

Manufacture is, first of all, manual production. This is evidenced by the very term “manufactura”, formed by the merger of two Latin words: “manus” - “hand” and “factura” - “manufacture”. The use of manual labor is one of the main features that distinguishes manufactory from factories and factories, the work of which is based on machine and conveyor production.

To clarify the issue of "manufacture", first of all, one should turn to the history of its origin. Its predecessors were ancient ergasteria (workshops), medieval traveling artels, craft workshops and their associations (guilds). By the end of the classical Middle Ages, guilds that regulated craft production , established rules, distributed orders and controlled the quality of products, ceased to correspond to the realities of the era. To create a more complete idea of ​​what manufacturing is, it is important to pay attention to the prerequisites for its emergence. The need for large-scale production appeared in an era when crafts and trade were growing. accomplished, a market for mass production was formed. Thus, during the period of absolutization of royal power in France (17th century), there was a growing need for the production of expensive products designed to satisfy the demands of the nobility. Large industries, manufactories, which appeared in large quantities at the ducal courts, produced furniture and tapestries. , dishes, jewelry, playing cards and others

The very first manufactory in Europe is considered to be the porcelain manufactory, founded in 1710 in Albrechtsburg Castle (Meissen). Later, enterprises for the handicraft production of various products appeared in many European cities.

What manufactory was was known in Russia back in the 17th century. At that time, there were state-owned (palace) and merchant workshops, which had certain features of manufacturing production. A significant increase in manufacturing production was observed at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, enterprises of this type were created, many of which are successfully operating today. For example, the oldest textile enterprise in Moscow is OJSC Trekhgornaya Manufactory.

Manufacture is not only a stage in the development of modern industrial production. The quality of products made by the hands of craftsmen far exceeds the quality of factory products. The role of manufacturing in preserving artistic traditions in the decorative and applied arts is truly invaluable, because the production of unique products is still carried out by the hands of craftsmen.

Manufactory (Late Latin manufactura, from Latin manus - hand and factura - production)

capitalist enterprise based on division of labor and handcraft techniques; 2nd, after simple capitalist cooperation (See Simple capitalist cooperation), stage of development of capitalist industry, preceding large-scale machine industry. As a characteristic form of capitalist production, capitalism arose in Western European countries in the mid-16th century and dominated until the last third of the 18th century.

The prerequisites for its emergence were created by the growth of crafts, commodity production and the resulting differentiation of small commodity producers, the emergence of workshops with hired workers, and the accumulation of monetary wealth as a result of the primitive accumulation of capital (See Primary accumulation of capital). M. arose in two ways: 1) the unification by the capitalist in one workshop of artisans of diverse specialties, through whose hands the product must pass until its final manufacture; 2) the association by a capitalist in a common workshop of artisans of the same specialty, each of whom continuously performs the same separate operation.

The development of manufacturing production corresponded to 3 forms of manufacturing: scattered, mixed and centralized. In scattered M., the entrepreneur, the owner of capital, bought and sold the product of independent artisans and supplied them with raw materials and tools of production. The small producer was practically cut off from the market, relegated to the position of a hired worker who received wages but continued to work in his home workshop. Mixed machining combined the execution of individual operations in a centralized workshop with work at home. Such M. arose, as a rule, on the basis of home handicrafts.

The most developed form was centralized manufacturing, which united hired workers (expropriated village artisans, bankrupt artisans in cities, peasants) in one workshop. Centralized policies were often imposed by governments.

M. led to the specialization of workers and the division of labor between them, which, on the one hand, increased his productivity, on the other, increased the degree of exploitation of the worker, turning him into a “partial worker” (Marx), chained for life to one labor operation.

Thus, Moscow was already a relatively large capitalist enterprise. But since its base was craft, it did not have decisive advantages over small-scale production. V.I. Lenin characterized manufacturing as follows: “1) based on manual production and on a broad base of small establishments; 2) introduces a division of labor between these institutions, developing it within the workshop; 3) puts a merchant at the head of production, as is always the case in manufacturing, which involves production on a large scale, wholesale purchase of raw materials and sales of the product; 4) reduces workers to the position of hired workers, employed in the owner’s workshop or at home” (Complete Works, 5th ed., vol. 2, p. 399). A characteristic feature of M. was the close connection between commercial and industrial capital. M workers have not yet formed into a special class. Their composition was characterized by extreme heterogeneity and disunity.

Although capitalism led to a significant increase in the productivity of social labor, it did not cover all social production. The manufacturing period is characterized by the presence of many small and minute industrial enterprises; Working from home remained her obligatory “companion.” K. Marx wrote: “At a certain stage of development, its own narrow technical basis came into conflict with its own created needs of production” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 23, p. 381). M. could not satisfy the huge demand for goods presented by growing domestic and foreign markets. Capitalist capitalism had a historically progressive character, as it contributed to the further deepening of societies, the division of labor, and created the prerequisites for large-scale industrial production (it simplified many labor operations, improved tools, led to the specialization of tools, made it possible to use auxiliary mechanisms and water energy, etc.). etc.), prepared a cadre of skilled workers for the transition to the machine stage of capitalist production, which came as a result of the industrial revolution (See Industrial Revolution).

I. L. Grigorieva.

Manufactory in Russia arose in the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 19th centuries. A characteristic feature of Russian capitalism was that it developed under conditions of the dominance of feudal-serf relations. The first M. arose in industries whose products were widely sold in domestic and foreign markets (salt making, distilling, production of yufti, etc.). In these same industries there was the largest number of capitalist relations with a predominance. Some historians do not consider large enterprises in these industries to be M. Most of M. arose with the active assistance of the state. In the 17th century, with the assistance of the government, metallurgy was created mainly in metallurgy (the factories of A. Vinius a, P. Marcelis a - F. Akema, etc.). In the first quarter of the 18th century, more than 100 such metallurgical plants appeared (S. G. Strumilin in 1725 had 80 industrial plants, including 52 in the manufacturing industry and 1,128 in the metallurgical industry).

Already in the 17th century, the government provided privileges to private entrepreneurs, and by the 20s of the 18th century, a whole system of encouraging entrepreneurship in the branches of production needed by the state had developed (financial subsidies, transferring the capital created by the treasury into the hands of private owners, providing labor force and consolidating it behind them, purchase of all or a significant part of the products by the state, etc.). Machinery in metallurgy, the so-called decree, was almost entirely serviced by the forced labor of assigned peasants and other workers. The government also assigned peasants to private farms, and in 1721 allowed the owners of farms to purchase peasants.

The second half of the 18th century and the first third of the 19th centuries were characterized by an increase in the number of capitalist businesses, mainly in light industry, and an increase in the number of employees. The share of civilian workers increased (%) in 1767 to 39.2, in 1804 to 47.9 and in 1825 to 54.4. The beginning of the crisis of labor based on forced labor dates back to this same period. M.'s growth was accompanied by the concentration of production and an increase in the number of employees in large enterprises. In 1789, in the village of Ivanovo, 226 mines employed 633 workers; 7 large mills, which made up 3.1% of the total number of enterprises, employed 245 people (about 40%). In the textile industry, dispersed manufacturing received the greatest development. The number of enterprises subordinate to the Manufactory Collegium, and later to the Department of Manufactures, increased. The number of capitalist workers in the cotton industry grew rapidly (the number of workers increased from 1.9 thousand in 1799 to 90.5 thousand in 1835, more than 90% of them were civilian employees). At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, capitalist textiles already predominated in the silk and sail-linen industries. The cloth industry was still dominated by possessions (that is, private mills - from the Latin posessio - possession) and especially patrimonial mills. They produced mainly cloth for the army. The number of workers for them grew at the expense of patrimonial serfs. The mining industry remained the citadel of serf relations. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, there were about 190 mining factories in Russia. They were served by 44.6 thousand serf artisans and about 30 thousand civilian workers. Auxiliary work was performed by assigned peasants (319 thousand people). The bulk of these enterprises were concentrated in the Urals.

The development of metallurgy in the 1930s coincided with the beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia. In 1835-60, the transition to a factory began in the beet-sugar and some other industries. In a number of industries (calico printing, stationery), the number of materials is declining. But in most industries during this period, the growth of capitalism was still continuing, mainly at the expense of capitalist ones. By 1860, civilian workers in the Moscow manufacturing industry accounted for about 80% of the total number of workers. Forced labor prevailed in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy.

After the Peasant Reform of 1861 (See Peasant Reform of 1861) forced labor in industry was abolished, including in manufacturing. A significant part of manufacturing grew into factories, and the surviving factories acquired secondary importance. In the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, material existed in many industries as an appendage of the factory or as a form of organizing production brought to life by the factory (for example, weaving matting, preparing paper boxes for packaging, etc.). In industries for which a system of machines had not yet been created (fulling, furriers, the production of locks, samovars, harmonies, etc.), metalwork remained the highest form of organization of production. In the conditions of the multi-structured economy of Russia, Moscow retained its independent significance in many backward and outlying regions. It disappeared only after the victory of the October Revolution of 1917.

Lit.: Marx K., Capital, vol. 1, Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed., vol. 23; Lenin V.I., Development of capitalism in Russia, Complete Works, 5th ed., vol. 3.

M. Ya. Volkov.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

Synonyms:

See what “Manufactory” is in other dictionaries:

- (from Latin manus hand, and facere do). A handicraft, an industrial establishment, a factory where various products are prepared, without the direct aid of fire. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. MANUFACTURE... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Factory, textiles, fabrics, red goods Dictionary of Russian synonyms. manufactory 1. see fabrics. 2. see factory Dictionary of synonyms... Synonym dictionary

manufactory- y, w. MANIFACTURE s, g. manufacture f., German Manufaktur, floor manufaktura. 1. outdated Factory, mainly textile. BAS 1. Factory, an establishment where wound materials are produced in large quantities for use without any purpose... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

Modern encyclopedia

- (from Latin manus hand and factura manufacturing) an enterprise based on the division of labor and manual craft techniques. Existed since mid. 16th century until the last third of the 18th century. in Western countries Europe, from the 2nd half. 17th century up to 1st floor 19th century in Russia. By virtue of… … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

An enterprise based on the division of labor and handcraft techniques; the second stage after simple cooperation in the historical process of the formation of industrial production. Existed from the mid-16th century. until the last third of the 18th century. in countries… … Historical Dictionary

In Marxism, the stage of historical development of capitalist production, characterized by the division of labor and its subsequent cooperation based on manual and craft technology. In English: Manufacture See also: Production methods... ... Financial Dictionary

Manufactory- (from the Latin manus hand and factura manufacturing), an enterprise based on the division of labor and manual craft techniques; The 2nd stage after simple cooperation in the historical process of the formation of industrial production. Existed since... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

A method of production characterized by the beginning of the division of labor and cooperation, while maintaining manual labor, handicrafts, and a low level of technology used. It became widespread in Europe in the 16th and 18th centuries. Dictionary of business terms... ... Dictionary of business terms

MANUFACTURE, manufactory, women. (from Latin manus hand and factura work). 1. A capitalist industrial enterprise in which production is carried out with hand tools with a detailed division of labor (economics, history). 2. Industrial enterprise... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

MANUFACTURE, s, female. 1. A form of production characterized by the use of hand tools and the division of labor between hired workers. 2. Factory, preferably textile (obsolete). Work in a factory. 3. collected Fabrics, textile products (obsolete) ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Manufactory(Latin.manufactura, manus-hand and factura-processing, manufacturing) - a form of industrial production characterized by the division of labor between hired workers and the use of manual labor. Manufacture preceded plants and factories.

Prerequisites for the formation of a manufactory

• growth of crafts, commodity production
• the emergence of workshops with hired workers
• accumulation of monetary wealth as a result of primitive capital accumulation

The origins of manufacture

• the unification of artisans of various specialties in one workshop, due to which the product remained in production in one place until its final production
• a union of artisans of the same specialty in a common workshop, each of whom continuously performed the same operation.

Forms of manufacture

Scattered manufactory

In scattered manufacturing, the entrepreneur bought up and the small manufacturer was actually in the position of a hired worker who received wages, but continued to work in his home workshop.

Mixed manufacture

Mixed manufacturing combined the execution of individual operations in a centralized workshop with work at home. Such manufacture arose, as a rule, on the basis of home handicrafts.

Centralized manufactory

The most developed form was centralized manufactory, which united hired workers in one workshop. Manufacture led to the specialization of workers and the division of labor between them, which increased its productivity.

Manufactory in Russia under Peter I

Types of manufacture (state-owned, patrimonial, possessional, merchant, peasant)

In industry there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. Under Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, and he encouraged their creation in every possible way.

Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of predominantly peasant labor - sessional, assigned, quitrent, etc. - made it a serf enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state-owned, merchant and landowner-owned. In 1721, industrialists were given the right to buy peasants to assign them to the enterprise (possession peasants).

State-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, assigned peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines.

The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landowner enterprises were fully supported by the serfs of the landowner-owner.

History of manufacturing in the leading countries of Western Europe

The history of the genesis of the industrial countries of Western Europe is closely connected with the development of manufacturing in the 16th-18th centuries, on which the economic development of the countries as a whole largely depended. A characteristic feature of manufacturing compared to the previous simple cooperation was the transition to an operational division of labor in the manufacture of goods, which led to a significant increase in labor productivity. Manufacturing production historically prepared the preconditions for large-scale machine industry.

In its classical form, the process of initial accumulation of capital took place in England. Back in the XII-XIV centuries. England exported raw wool for processing abroad, in particular to Holland. In the 15th century In England, manufactories began to be built for the production of cloth from their own raw materials, the demand for which increased every year. In the 16th century About half of the working population of England was engaged in the production of woolen fabrics, and at the beginning of the 17th century. 90% of English exports were cloth products.

The second aspect of primitive capital accumulation was the accumulation of significant amounts of money in the hands of individuals. Here, England was characterized by such sources as: the use of public debts and high interest rates on them, the implementation of a policy of protectionism (patronage), which enabled the state to set high customs tariffs that protected its own manufacturer from competition.

A significant role for England in the accumulation of capital was played by the Great Geographical Discoveries, the robbery of the colonies, especially India, unequal trade, piracy, and the slave trade, which acquired large proportions in the 17th century, when thousands of blacks from Africa were exported for sale to America. The process of capital accumulation was also positively influenced by a political factor - the bourgeois revolution (1640-1660), which brought the bourgeoisie to political power.

The above sources provided an opportunity for individuals in England to accumulate large funds, which were invested in the development of manufacturing production and turned into capital.

As for Holland, the process of initial capital accumulation began earlier than in England. Back at the end of the 14th century. in Holland there was a destruction of feudal relations in the countryside and the formation of farms, and as a result, the emergence of a large number of free labor.

Bourgeois revolution in Holland in the second half of the 16th century. accelerated the process of initial capital accumulation, which occurred through such sources as: the development of financial transactions; Agriculture; robbery of colonies and unequal exchange of goods with them of trade income. The transformation of Holland into a leading financial power in the world actively influenced the development of manufacturing production based on the use of civilian labor. Consequently, the opportunity arose to quickly develop shipbuilding, cloth, linen, silk and other manufactories, create enterprises for processing agricultural products, and turn the country into the largest trading and financial power in the world.

The influence of the Great Geographical Discoveries accelerated the process of initial accumulation of capital in England, Holland and other countries of Western Europe and the destruction of the natural feudal economy; These discoveries drew the feudal economy into market relations and had a positive effect on the expansion of manufacturing production, which created the preconditions for the transition to an industrial society.

From the middle of the 17th century. manufacture becomes the dominant form of production, covering an ever-increasing amount of output of various types of goods and deepening the international division of labor. The sectoral composition of manufactories was largely determined by natural-geographical conditions and the historical development of a particular country. Thus, in England, cloth, metallurgical, metalworking and shipbuilding manufactories mainly predominated; in Germany - mining, metalworking and construction, in Holland - textile and shipbuilding.

The development of manufacturing production caused a deterioration in working conditions for workers, an increase in the length of the working day, the use of female and child labor, and a decrease in real wages, which contributed to the aggravation of social contradictions.

The first bourgeois revolutions in Western Europe and the USA made a significant contribution to the development of manufacturing production: in the Netherlands (1566-1609), England (1640-1649), France (1789-1794), USA (1775-1783). These revolutions created the conditions for the bourgeoisie to come to political power, which adopted laws aimed at the further development of manufacturing production, the expansion of trade, finance, and the elimination of feudal remnants that hampered the economic development of the country. The main result of bourgeois revolutions is the final victory over feudalism and the establishment of a bourgeois-democratic system. The main direction of activity of the bourgeoisie, which came to political power, was to create favorable conditions for the development of manufactures and direct all laws in the financial sphere to accumulate money in various ways and protect the country's domestic market from foreign goods.

The bourgeois revolution in England had a significant influence on the development of manufacturing and trade. It had universal historical significance, signaling the final liquidation of feudalism. Having come to political power during the revolution, the English bourgeoisie adopted laws aimed at developing industry and trade, strengthening finances. So, in 1651, the “Navigation Act” was adopted, according to which all goods that were imported into England were to be transported only on English ships; Parliament, with its laws, supported the process of fencing, which provided cheap labor for manufactories. The government actively pursued a policy of capital accumulation in the country, which strengthened the monetary system and production. To strengthen the credit system, the Bank of England was opened in 1694, and the territory of the colonies expanded significantly. In the 18th century England became the largest colonial power in the world, which had a positive impact on the industrial development of the country and provided a market for its goods.

The economic policy of the French bourgeois revolution was actively anti-feudal. The revolution abolished the tax privileges of the nobles, eliminated the regulation of production and workshops, proclaimed freedom of trade, introduced a policy of protectionism, and largely resolved the agrarian issue by allocating a small amount of land to the peasants. In January 1800, the French Bank was created in the country, and the credit and financial system developed.

Development of trade in the XVII-XVIII centuries. in countries such as Holland, England and France leads to the fact that trade, especially colonial trade, becomes one of the leading sectors of the economy, bringing huge profits to the countries. Therefore, the policy of trade balance and expansion of trade relations between countries is of great importance. The trade balance was calculated as the difference between exports and imports of goods.

Consequently, already at the beginning of the development of world trade, countries believed that they needed to export more goods abroad than import them in order to have a positive balance, which actively influenced the accumulation of money in the country.

To ensure a positive trade balance, Western European countries actively pursued a policy of protectionism aimed at protecting industry and the domestic market of countries from the penetration of foreign goods by laws and regulations. For this purpose, primarily high duty rates on the import of goods from abroad were used. At the same time, protectionist policies encouraged the development of the national economy and protected it from foreign competition. The policy of protectionism, for example, was actively pursued by England, and this had a positive effect on the development of manufacturing production.

Thus, during the manufacturing period of economic development in the countries of Western Europe, under the influence of the Great Geographical Discoveries, the rapid initial accumulation of capital, the creation of the colonial system and the emergence of the world market, the natural feudal economy decomposed. Along with this, market relations developed; Internal and foreign trade is acquiring significant volumes, which contributes to the expansion of manufacturing production, which laid the foundations for the transition to an industrial society.

There are such unnoticeable topics in preparation for the Unified State Exam in history that earlier, when there was still the Soviet education system and oral exams, were taught at school in an interesting form and therefore easily remembered. And today, not only can they not be found in textbooks, but in school they don’t talk about such topics at all.

One of them concerns the history of the development of manufacturing production. Manufacture is a form of production organization based on specialized manual labor. And if you are asked when it originated in Russia, most of the guys will, unfortunately, give the wrong answer. And if you ask which of them were in Ancient Rus', then you will most likely begin lengthy discussions, although in fact they did not exist in ancient Rus'! In this article I will briefly cover this topic the way it should be covered. Happy diving!

Concept

So, as I already said, manufacture is a form of production organization based on specialized manual labor. Let us reveal what this definition means.

Well, imagine a blacksmith in the Ancient period of history and in the Early Middle Ages. A client comes to him and asks him to make an axe. The blacksmith takes it and does everything himself. Well, maybe he has an apprentice to help him.

You have to understand that this is not a manufacture. Yes, the work is manual, but not specialized: after all, one or two people perform the entire cycle of work. This organization of production began to become obsolete over time. After all, if you are a blacksmith in the city, then your competitors will quickly push you out of business. Look: there are a lot of clients, you cannot take on more of them, because your capabilities are very limited. Exit: either move to the village. Or are you looking for opportunities to unite.

Actually, this is what began to happen: blacksmiths and other artisans in European cities began to organize into workshops - this is something like merchant guilds. In such a workshop, every artisan will always have a job and will always have an income. But such a workshop is also not a factory: the workshop participants agreed on production volumes and the distribution of orders. The work cycle did not change.

And around the 15th century, the first manufactories began to appear in Europe. Europe in general is a very rational region. And after the start of the reform movement, historians generally talk about the emergence of a “European miracle.” We’ll talk about what this is in another article. Actually, during the late Middle Ages, the development of manufacturing production began. Initially it affected the textile industry, because there the production process is easy to break down into its component parts.

For example, there is a person who wanted to organize the production of leather boots. He hires workers and explains who should do what. One or two, for example, prepare the skin for dressing, the third and fourth, perhaps, soak it; the fifth and sixth are dried; the seventh and eighth sew the base for the boot, and the ninth and tenth make the finished product.

It was a real revolution - a manufacturing revolution in production. Because the workers may not be artisans at all. They can be anyone - even illiterate peasants! And they will never create competition because they do not know the entire production cycle and all its nuances.

It was thanks to manufactories that the urban population began to grow in Europe. Trade began to develop on an unprecedented scale.

Kinds

There are only three types of manufactures known in Europe:

Dispersed - one in which the bourgeois distributes raw materials to village hired workers, explains, if necessary, what they should do with it, and receives the final product, which he takes for sale. Such workers may be located in different villages and will not know that they are working on the same products.

Centralized - in which the production of goods occurs within one space, in one place. The workers here are most likely artisans, each of whom is entrusted with his own operation.

Mixed - a form of organization in which some parts of the product are produced in the village, and the other - the final - in the workshop of artisans.

In Russia there were more types of manufactures, since there was a serf economy. And now pay attention - the first of them appeared in Russia no earlier than in the second half of the 17th century - under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The first was organized by the Dutchman Andrei Vinius; it was engaged in the production of cannonballs. In general, about the economic development of Russia in the 17th century.

Let us name the key features of the formation of such production in our country:

• They began to appear “from above,” from the state. The people were poor, there were few capitalists, bourgeoisie, everyone always lived from hand to mouth, so there was no talk of any business. The state needed fabric for clothing soldiers - they organized a textile (cloth) manufactory, they needed guns - the Pushkar one. Then they began to be organized by large industrialists - the Stroganovs, Nevyanovs, Demidovs. But who was their customer? Again the state. There is no need to talk about any private customers or capitalist enterprises in relation to Russia. What comes from this? That's right - state capitalism is formed when everything is tied to the state. Doesn't remind you of anything?! That's it!
• The second feature was that in Russia serfs—read slaves—worked in factories. Slaves don’t have to be paid normal money, otherwise they might buy their freedom. Slaves are attached to factories forever. Sometimes it was about serfs who went to work in a factory in the winter in order to pay rent to the landowner. After all, there was often not enough harvest for this.

That is why in Russia there were such species:

• State (state) - their organizer was the state. Everything is clear here. If not, write in the comments what is unclear.
• Possession - these are private manufactories (organized by merchants, large industrialists), who were allowed to buy serfs for factories. Such purchased serfs were called possessions. Hence the name.
• Patrimonial estates are those that arose within the boundaries of noble estates. For example, you are an advanced nobleman who wants to increase his income. You take it, organize a small cloth factory - and everything is gorgeous!

And one last point. I am sure that you perceived it somehow strange that I call a manufacture a factory. After all, a plant, in the public understanding, is, I don’t know, a plant for the production of cars using robotic technology, or at least a steam engine.

But in fact, a plant can be both a manufactory and a factory. The word “factory” itself means a kind of production organized on the river bank. Because water is everything in production.

In general, I reveal all these and hundreds of other nuances in my preparation courses for the Unified State Exam in history. You can find out more about them.

This is where I end the article, if you have any questions, write in the comments. Also share this useful article with your friends on social networks.

The period of the late Middle Ages, characterized by the decomposition of feudalism and the development of new forms of economic management, was marked by the appearance of the 16th century. manufactories, which until the end of the 18th century. remained the main production unit in many Western European countries.

What contributed to the emergence of manufacturing?

By the beginning of the 16th century. noticeable changes have occurred in a number of handicraft industries. During this period, wind and water energy began to be used, and the wind engine used in mills was improved. Increasingly used in industry as an energy source top water wheel.

Great strides have been made in mining and metallurgy. In many European countries appeared blast furnaces, in which metal was smelted at very high temperatures from refractory iron ores. When forging metal they began to use mechanical hammer, the mass of which reached 1 ton or more. In the cold processing of metals, primitive turning, drilling, rolling and other machines were used.

Chemical production has developed rapidly. Technologies for the production of acids, alkalis, soap, ammonia, saltpeter, turpentine, drying oil, and oil paints were developed. There was a formation of glass production enterprises.

Significant progress was observed in textile crafts, in particular in cloth making. They began to produce thin woolen fabrics, dyed in different colors. It was in this industry that more advanced and productive horizontal looms began to be used instead of primitive vertical looms. The production of silk and cotton fabrics has spread in a number of European countries.

During this period, a real revolution took place in military affairs, associated with the widespread use of gunpowder in firearms.

With the invention of printing, a new branch of production began to develop - typography(see more about this in selected tests, testimonies of contemporaries).

Improving the skills and technical qualifications of workers was important. The growth of the division of labor in production due to the complication of its technology and organization contributed to the deepening of specialization, the identification of new professions, the improvement of working tools, and a general increase in labor productivity.

All these and similar technical innovations not only contributed to general changes in technological processes, but also led to fundamental changes in socio-economic relations and methods of labor organization, which was reflected in the emergence of a new type of enterprise - manufactories.

What is the difference between manufactories and craft workshops? What types of manufactures became widespread in the era of late feudalism?

By the nature of the tools manufactory differed little from a medieval workshop (the Latin “manufactory” means “handmade product”, hand-made production). But it already existed here internal division of labor within individual enterprises. Workers performed only individual operations, which contributed to a significant increase in labor productivity. This is the first difference between the manufactories.

The second difference is that the manufacture was free from shop restrictions and regulations, which opened up great opportunities for production development.

Finally, the third significant difference was that the main producers of material goods in manufactories were not independent artisans and peasants (small owners), but hired workers.

There were three main types of manufacture - centralized, dispersed and mixed. In the 16th century Centralized manufacturing received the greatest development.

Centralized manufactory was a large enterprise with tens or even hundreds of workers engaged in the production of any product in one place. Here, detailed division of labor was practiced to the greatest extent, when all workers were interconnected by a single technological process, while performing a specific operation. This made it possible to very quickly increase labor productivity and reduce total costs per unit of production. For example, in the needle industry, each of the ten workers employed in it made 4800 needles, while one artisan, who carried out all the operations, could barely make 20 needles a day (see selected texts, A. Smith, for more details on this). The detailing of operations and the improvement of working tools and machine tools in a centralized manufactory entailed a transition to machine technology. This type of manufacturing has become widespread in the textile, mining, metallurgical, paper, printing, and woodworking industries. The owners of centralized manufactories were mainly wealthy merchants, less often noblemen, who invested their capital in industrial production. The bulk of workers in centralized manufactories were bankrupt artisans, rural farm laborers and day laborers. Since men's wages were low, many families were forced to send women and children to the factories. The working day lasted 14-16 hours.

Scattered manufactory- this is a type of enterprise where the merchant-entrepreneur subordinated and exploited small home-based artisans, supplying them with raw materials and marketing the products they produced. Rural and urban artisans who produced woolen and linen fabrics, metal products, shoes, dishes and other products could no longer remain independent producers and worked mainly for the owner as hired workers.

Mixed manufacture was a combination of exploitation of the labor of homeworkers placed in one large workshop, where the most important, skilled or expensive operations were carried out, for example, assembling carriages.

It should be noted that at the early stage of development, all three types of manufactories were characterized by manual labor(this circumstance brought them closer to craft workshops).

What are the features of the organization and spread of manufacturing production in the leading countries of Western Europe in the late Middle Ages?

In the 16th century The Netherlands was experiencing a period of economic expansion. Emerging capitalist relations are beginning to crowd out guild crafts and corporately organized trade. The guilds and trade guilds in the cities, who did not want to give up their positions, prohibited the creation of capitalist manufactories. Therefore, manufactories appeared in those places where corporate restrictions were weaker, in particular in villages. Buyers and merchants were very active here, supplying rural artisans with raw materials and buying up finished products, which they sold at great profit to themselves. In some places, entire groups of villages were already working for buyers. The organizational form of agricultural production was dispersed manufacture.

In the province of Namur, where large metallurgical enterprises at that time arose with their iron ore mines, blast furnaces, forging and ore crushing mechanisms, capitalist manufactories of various types arose.

The development of manufactures in England was facilitated by connections with Reformation; The premises of abbeys and monasteries passed into the hands of city authorities and textile entrepreneurs, in which machines were installed and manufactories were created. Thus, in the premises of Osney Abbey alone near Oxford, the clothier Stump expected to employ 2000 people in the production of cloth.

In the 16th century The village became the center of the developing manufacturing industry in England. Sources from this period provide insight into this form of production, organized by the large clothier Thomas Paycock. All work was performed by carders, spinners, fullers, shearers and other workers. Some people who worked for Paycock in neighboring villages received raw materials and semi-finished products from him and worked in their own homes; others worked in Paycock's premises on machines belonging to the clothier himself. This organization of labor is typical for mixed manufacturing.

There were few centralized manufactories in England at that time. An example of a large centralized manufactory (about 960 workers) was the manufactory of John Wychcombe; in his manufactory there was a detailed division of labor, the product went through all stages of production in one place (see more about this in selected texts).

In the 16th century, capitalist production appeared in France in the form of dispersed and centralized manufacture. It achieved its greatest success in those industries that worked for the foreign market: clothmaking, linen and linen production, and silkmaking.

The leather and lace industry in Northern France developed in the form of dispersed manufactory. But there were industries that involved the creation of centralized manufactories, primarily the casting of cannons. Centralized manufactory spread in glass production, as well as in printing.

In the 17th century The French government pursued protectionist policies and patronized the development of industry. Large state-owned manufactories were created and private enterprises were encouraged, to which privileges and subsidies were distributed. The manufactories were designed to produce luxury goods - silk and velvet fabrics, tapestries, gilded leather for wallpaper, glass and jewelry, expensive lace, furniture.

A significant rise in handicraft production, in which individual elements of capitalist manufacture appeared, was observed in Spain. The leading industry was the cloth industry. In its main centers - Segovia, Toledo, Cordoba - large manufacturing enterprises were formed. In the vicinity of these cities lived many spinners and weavers engaged in scattered manufacturing.

The rise in industrial production was greatly facilitated by the expansion of the market not only in Spain itself, but since the 30s. XVI century and in its American colonies. The Spaniards who moved there bought clothes and weapons, paying for them in gold and silver. The growth of manufactories was also facilitated by the emergence of a significant number of free hands as a result of the flight of peasants from the countryside. In Valladolid, Salamanca and some other cities, beggars and vagabonds were forcibly turned into workers.

The process of development of manufacturing production also covers other European countries. Thus, in Switzerland, capitalist manufacturing penetrates into the paper industry, as well as jewelry and silk weaving.

Tracing the evolution of manufacturing production in the 17th and early 18th centuries, it is worth noting that it received its greatest development in Holland and England. The leading positions in these countries were occupied by textile, metallurgical, shipbuilding, and printing manufactories. The entire production process took place, as a rule, in a centralized workshop. Often the number of workers in English and Dutch urban manufactories reached several hundred people (for comparison: in the industry of France, small centralized manufactories predominated, employing labor from 10 to 50 people, and only occasionally up to 100). It was in manufactories (mainly English) that preparations for production for the industrial revolution took place, since tools of labor were improved here. Thus, conditions were created for the emergence of machines, which in a later period began to displace manual equipment.

In other European countries - Spain, Italy, Germany - under the dominance of feudal relations and the small economy inherent in them, large and medium-sized centralized manufactories were, in the words of K. Marx, only an “architectural decoration” that towered over small-scale production.

Brief conclusions

1. Great geographical discoveries of the period XV-XVII centuries. prepared by great successes in shipbuilding, navigation and the development of geographical knowledge. The main purpose of the Great Geographical Discoveries is economic needs, namely: the shortage of precious metals, the search for the shortest and safest sea routes to India, as well as the seizure of new lands and the creation of colonies there. In 1492 Spanish caravels, led by Christopher Columbus, reach the shores of America, and in 1498. A Portuguese expedition led by Vasco do Gama opens the way to India. In the XVI-XVII centuries. New territories are being developed - Australia, New Zealand, northeast Asia. The discovery and exploration of these new lands becomes the work of the British, Dutch, French, and Russians. The main results of the Great Geographical Discoveries for the economic life of Western European countries are, firstly, the creation of colonial empires, first Portuguese and Spanish, later Dutch, English and French; secondly, the “price revolution” caused by the influx of gold and silver from America to Europe; thirdly, the formation of a global market.

2. The process of initial accumulation of capital includes: 1) the accumulation of large funds and means of production in the hands of owners and 2) the transformation of most of the direct producers (artisans and peasants) into those deprived of the means of production. The accumulation of large funds and means of production in the hands of owners is determined by both external sources (robbery of colonies, slave trade, piracy) and internal ones (tax farming, usury, protectionist policies). The separation of small agricultural producers from the land is a consequence of the process of “enclosure”, which was widely developed in England in the 16th-17th centuries. The initial accumulation of capital leads, on the one hand, to the emergence of owners of large monetary wealth, potential entrepreneurs and merchants of the bourgeois type, and on the other hand, to the transformation of the mass of the rural and urban population into a class of wage workers. The labor of the latter is widely used in new types of enterprises.

3. In the 16th century. In many countries of Western Europe, manufactory appeared, which for a long time (until the end of the 18th century) remained the main production unit. Manufacturing production is prepared by a number of technical discoveries (improved wind turbine, overhead water wheel, horizontal loom, printing), as well as changes in socio-economic relations and methods of labor organization. The main difference between a manufactory and a medieval craft workshop is the internal division of labor, which promotes production efficiency. In Western European countries, centralized, dispersed and mixed manufacturing are becoming widespread. If in the 16th century the most common type of manufactory is scattered (typical of rural areas of Holland and England), then in the subsequent period (XVII-XVIII centuries) the entire production process in textile, metallurgical and other industries takes place in a centralized manufactory. It is in manufactories (mainly English) that production is being prepared for the industrial revolution, since tools of labor are being improved here. Thus, conditions are created for the emergence of machines, which in a later period begin to displace manual equipment.